The American social psychologist F. H Allport proposed his own perceptual theory of structure that known as classical view of perception. Allport present seven related stands of the earlier theoretical endeavor have been selected. There are as follows-
1. The correlation of the phenomenological and the physical (mind body) problem.
2. Analytic introspection, sensationalism, and elementarism
3. Associationism and context theory
4. Functionalism and psychological agency
5. Determining tendency and attitudes
6. The nativism-empiricism controversy
7. Phenomenological philosophy and formal configuration
শুক্রবার, ১৭ মে, ২০১৩
রবিবার, ২ ডিসেম্বর, ২০১২
Research
What is Research?
Research is an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment. In short, the search for knowledge though objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research.
According to Robert Ross, Research is essentially an investigation, a recording and an analysis of evidence for the purpose of gaining knowledge.
According to Uma Sakharon; Research is an organized, systematic data based, critical, scientific enquiry of investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with the objective of finding answers or solutions to it.
Objective of research:
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it.
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group.
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else.
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables.
Goals of Psychological Research
There are huge of goals psychological research-
To describe behavior
To understand explain its causes
To predict how people will behave
To influence behavior
Many researchers agree that the goals of scientific research are: description, prediction, and explanation/understanding.
Description
Description refers to the procedures used to define, classify and categorize subjects and their relationships. Descriptions allow us to establish generalizations and universals.
Prediction
In addition developing descriptions, researchers make predictions. Descriptions of events often provide a basis for prediction.
Explanation/Understanding
Arguably, the most important goal of scientific research is explanation. Explanation is achieved when the cause or causes of a phenomenon are identified. In order to determine cause and effect three pre-requisites are essential:
• Co-variation of events (relationship): The variables must correlate. To determine the relationship of two variables, it must be determined if the relationship could occur due to chance.
• Proper time-order sequence (time precedence): For 1 to cause 2, 1 must precede 2. The cause must precede the effect.
• Elimination of plausible alternative causes (non-spuriousness, or genuine): For a relationship between A and B to be nonspurious, there must not be a C that causes both A and B such that the relationship between A and B vanishes once C is controlled.
Criteria of Good Research
Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
8. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules
9. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research.
Research is an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment. In short, the search for knowledge though objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research.
According to Robert Ross, Research is essentially an investigation, a recording and an analysis of evidence for the purpose of gaining knowledge.
According to Uma Sakharon; Research is an organized, systematic data based, critical, scientific enquiry of investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with the objective of finding answers or solutions to it.
Objective of research:
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it.
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group.
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else.
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables.
Goals of Psychological Research
There are huge of goals psychological research-
To describe behavior
To understand explain its causes
To predict how people will behave
To influence behavior
Many researchers agree that the goals of scientific research are: description, prediction, and explanation/understanding.
Description
Description refers to the procedures used to define, classify and categorize subjects and their relationships. Descriptions allow us to establish generalizations and universals.
Prediction
In addition developing descriptions, researchers make predictions. Descriptions of events often provide a basis for prediction.
Explanation/Understanding
Arguably, the most important goal of scientific research is explanation. Explanation is achieved when the cause or causes of a phenomenon are identified. In order to determine cause and effect three pre-requisites are essential:
• Co-variation of events (relationship): The variables must correlate. To determine the relationship of two variables, it must be determined if the relationship could occur due to chance.
• Proper time-order sequence (time precedence): For 1 to cause 2, 1 must precede 2. The cause must precede the effect.
• Elimination of plausible alternative causes (non-spuriousness, or genuine): For a relationship between A and B to be nonspurious, there must not be a C that causes both A and B such that the relationship between A and B vanishes once C is controlled.
Criteria of Good Research
Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
8. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules
9. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research.
Concept, data, fact and theory
Concept;
A concept is a mental image, generalization, of certain characteristics and aspects that make up an item. This list of characteristics is not a label, but can be used to describe all examples of items under that category and separate them from non-examples.
According to E.R. Leach 1954, a concept is a kind of unit in terms of which one thinks; a unit smaller than a judgment, proposition, or theory, but one which necessarily enters into these. In an assertion, something is predicated of a concept, and the predicate itself can generally be re-described as a concept. At the same time, however, the concept is by no means an ultimate or indivisible unit, for concepts can be augmented or diminished by addition or subtraction of some feature. Moreover, while concepts occur within assertions or theories and are thus distinct from them, a proposition or theory or thesis as a whole can in turn be referred to as a further concept.
According to thefreedictionary.com concept is:
• "A general idea derived or inferred from specific instances or occurrences."
• "Something formed in the mind; a thought or notion."
• "A scheme or a plan
Therefore a concept can be described as an idea or plan that is first thought up. The concept is really the first and initial stage of something and it can be vital to the overall result as lying great foundations will ensure a strong finish.
Types of concept;
There are some types of concepts such as-
Conjunctive concepts
Disjunctive concepts
Goal derived concepts
Typicality concepts
Level of Concept
1. General or theoretical concept
2. Sub level concept
3. Operational concept
Data
Data are distinct pieces of information, usually formatted in a special way. Strictly speaking, data is the plural of datum, a single piece of information. In practice, however, people use data as both the singular and plural form of the word. In database management systems, data files are the files that store the database information.
Research data is data that is collected, observed, or created, for purposes of analysis to produce original research results. The word “data” is used throughout this site to refer to research data.
Research data can be generated for different purposes and through different processes, and can be divided into different categories. Each category may require a different type of data management plan such as observational, experimental, simulation, derive or compiled and reference or canonical data.
Data are collected in order to subtanceate and idea or motion. Adequate data may astabicated the relation between cause and effect-
1. Qualitative - basic of some attributes.
2. Quantative - numeric data
3. Chronological – basic of time
4. Geographical – basic of division, area.
Fact
A fact is regarded as an empirically verifiable observation. Thus the fact of science are the product of observation, which the theoretically relevant and are meaningful to the purpose of enquiry.
According to wikihow, A fact is an objective, verifiable observation. It is the same everywhere. It can be, and has been, verified many times.
For example, we know that the germ theory of illness is a fact because we can take bacteria from someone suffering from an illness, look at that bacteria under a microscope, and then inject that bacteria into another individual--who will then get that same illness. We know that the Earth is round because we can travel due west and eventually end up where we started from.
Role of Fact
(1) Facts help to initiate theories.
(2) They lead to the reformulation of existing theory.
(3) They cause rejection of theories that do not fit the facts.
(4) They change the focus and orientation of theory and
(5) they clarify and redefine theory.
Theory;
Theory refers to the relationship between facts, or to the ordering of facts in some meaningful way. The development of theory is generally followed by testing the speculation, hunches, tentative generalization or hypothesis.
A theory is a based upon a hypothesis and backed by evidence. A theory presents a concept or idea that is testable.
In psychology, theories are used to provide a model for understanding human thoughts, emotions and behaviors. A psychological theory has two key components: (1) it must describe a behavior and (2) make predictions about future behaviors.
Theory is a tool of science in these ways
1.it defines the major orientation of a science, by defining the kinds of data that are to be abstracted.
2. It offers a conceptual scheme by which the relevant phenomena are systematized, classified and interrelated.
3. It summarizes facts into empirical generalizations and systems of generalizations.
4. It predicts facts and
5. It points to gaps in our knowledge.
A concept is a mental image, generalization, of certain characteristics and aspects that make up an item. This list of characteristics is not a label, but can be used to describe all examples of items under that category and separate them from non-examples.
According to E.R. Leach 1954, a concept is a kind of unit in terms of which one thinks; a unit smaller than a judgment, proposition, or theory, but one which necessarily enters into these. In an assertion, something is predicated of a concept, and the predicate itself can generally be re-described as a concept. At the same time, however, the concept is by no means an ultimate or indivisible unit, for concepts can be augmented or diminished by addition or subtraction of some feature. Moreover, while concepts occur within assertions or theories and are thus distinct from them, a proposition or theory or thesis as a whole can in turn be referred to as a further concept.
According to thefreedictionary.com concept is:
• "A general idea derived or inferred from specific instances or occurrences."
• "Something formed in the mind; a thought or notion."
• "A scheme or a plan
Therefore a concept can be described as an idea or plan that is first thought up. The concept is really the first and initial stage of something and it can be vital to the overall result as lying great foundations will ensure a strong finish.
Types of concept;
There are some types of concepts such as-
Conjunctive concepts
Disjunctive concepts
Goal derived concepts
Typicality concepts
Level of Concept
1. General or theoretical concept
2. Sub level concept
3. Operational concept
Data
Data are distinct pieces of information, usually formatted in a special way. Strictly speaking, data is the plural of datum, a single piece of information. In practice, however, people use data as both the singular and plural form of the word. In database management systems, data files are the files that store the database information.
Research data is data that is collected, observed, or created, for purposes of analysis to produce original research results. The word “data” is used throughout this site to refer to research data.
Research data can be generated for different purposes and through different processes, and can be divided into different categories. Each category may require a different type of data management plan such as observational, experimental, simulation, derive or compiled and reference or canonical data.
Data are collected in order to subtanceate and idea or motion. Adequate data may astabicated the relation between cause and effect-
1. Qualitative - basic of some attributes.
2. Quantative - numeric data
3. Chronological – basic of time
4. Geographical – basic of division, area.
Fact
A fact is regarded as an empirically verifiable observation. Thus the fact of science are the product of observation, which the theoretically relevant and are meaningful to the purpose of enquiry.
According to wikihow, A fact is an objective, verifiable observation. It is the same everywhere. It can be, and has been, verified many times.
For example, we know that the germ theory of illness is a fact because we can take bacteria from someone suffering from an illness, look at that bacteria under a microscope, and then inject that bacteria into another individual--who will then get that same illness. We know that the Earth is round because we can travel due west and eventually end up where we started from.
Role of Fact
(1) Facts help to initiate theories.
(2) They lead to the reformulation of existing theory.
(3) They cause rejection of theories that do not fit the facts.
(4) They change the focus and orientation of theory and
(5) they clarify and redefine theory.
Theory;
Theory refers to the relationship between facts, or to the ordering of facts in some meaningful way. The development of theory is generally followed by testing the speculation, hunches, tentative generalization or hypothesis.
A theory is a based upon a hypothesis and backed by evidence. A theory presents a concept or idea that is testable.
In psychology, theories are used to provide a model for understanding human thoughts, emotions and behaviors. A psychological theory has two key components: (1) it must describe a behavior and (2) make predictions about future behaviors.
Theory is a tool of science in these ways
1.it defines the major orientation of a science, by defining the kinds of data that are to be abstracted.
2. It offers a conceptual scheme by which the relevant phenomena are systematized, classified and interrelated.
3. It summarizes facts into empirical generalizations and systems of generalizations.
4. It predicts facts and
5. It points to gaps in our knowledge.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
TYPES OF RESEARCH
The basic types of research are as follows:
Theoretical and empirical Research
Empirical research is any activity that uses direct or indirect observation as its test of reality. The empirical researcher attempts to describe accurately the interaction between his instrument and the entity being observed. The researcher is expected to calibrate his instrument by applying it to known standard objects and documenting the results before applying it to unknown objects.
Theoretical research is research that happens only in theory as opposed to in practice, i.e. you pretend that it's happening to examine or justify the consequences. Theoretical research generally uses the findings from existing works to develop new ideas through analyzing existing theory and explanations.
Distinguish between Theoretical and empirical Research
We can also distinguish between theoretical and empirical research. Theoretical research generally uses the findings from existing works to develop new ideas through analyzing existing theory and explanations. These new ideas are not tested through collecting evidence in the form of primary data. Empirical research, on the other hand, supports the development of new ideas through the collection of data (empirical means based upon observation or measurement rather than theoretical reasoning). Thus, a researcher who develops a theory of sport fan violence through existing work will be undertaking theoretical research. The researcher who takes this one step further and collects data to test their explanation will be undertaking empirical research. Although theoretical research has its merits, we would suggest that you should- if at all possible- support your findings empirically through the collection of primary data.
Basic and Applied Research
Applied research: Refers to scientific study and research that seeks to solve practical problems. It is used to find solutions to everyday problems cure illness and develop innovative technologies. Psychologists working in human factors or industrial/organizational fields often do this type of research.
Basic research: Refers to study and research on pure science that is meant to increase our scientific knowledge base. This type of research is often purely theoretical with the intent of increasing our understanding of certain phenomena or behavior, but does not seek to solve or treat these problems.
Difference between Basic and Applied Research
Both basic and applied research is important to the advancement of human knowledge, but they work in slightly different ways, and they have different end goals in sight. Basic or pure research is conducted solely for the purpose of gathering information and building on existing knowledge, as opposed to applied research, which is geared towards the resolution of a particular question.
Often, applied research builds on existing basic research. Basic research could be considered the foundation of knowledge which provides people with the basic information they need to pursue particular areas of research.
The lines between basic and applied research can blur. For example, a researcher playing around with batteries and methods of storing energy might accidentally stumble upon a revolutionary battery which could be utilized as a commercial product.
In basic research, general theories, ideas, and questions are explored and tested, from where the universe comes from to how animals communicate. Doing basic research ensures that applied researchers don't need to reinvent the wheel every time they start on a new project, because the groundwork has been done.
Evaluative and Action Research
Action research is a method for intentional learning from experience, originally formulated by social psychologist Kurt Lewin. Action research is a practical approach to professional inquiry in any social situation.
According to Reason and Bradbury 2001, Action research (AR) is an orientation to inquiry rather than a particular method. In its simplest form it attempts to combine understanding or development of theory, with action and change through a participative process, whilst remaining grounded in experience.
Carr and Kemmis (1986) describe action research as being about:
• the improvement of practice;
• the improvement of the understanding of practice;
• the improvement of the situation in which the practice takes place.
Types of action research
Grundy (1982) distinguishes three broad types of action research:
Technical action research
Practical action research
Emancipatory action research
Evaluative
Evaluative research seeks to assess or judge in some way, providing useful information about something other than might be gleaned in mere observation or investigation of relationships.
Nature of Evaluative Research
-It is usually used for decision-making
-The research questions are derived from a program, usually a service offered to a client group.
-The research provides a basis for making a judgment about the program.
-The research occurs in the environment of the program application, not in a laboratory and not in the respondent’s study
The basic types of research are as follows:
Theoretical and empirical Research
Empirical research is any activity that uses direct or indirect observation as its test of reality. The empirical researcher attempts to describe accurately the interaction between his instrument and the entity being observed. The researcher is expected to calibrate his instrument by applying it to known standard objects and documenting the results before applying it to unknown objects.
Theoretical research is research that happens only in theory as opposed to in practice, i.e. you pretend that it's happening to examine or justify the consequences. Theoretical research generally uses the findings from existing works to develop new ideas through analyzing existing theory and explanations.
Distinguish between Theoretical and empirical Research
We can also distinguish between theoretical and empirical research. Theoretical research generally uses the findings from existing works to develop new ideas through analyzing existing theory and explanations. These new ideas are not tested through collecting evidence in the form of primary data. Empirical research, on the other hand, supports the development of new ideas through the collection of data (empirical means based upon observation or measurement rather than theoretical reasoning). Thus, a researcher who develops a theory of sport fan violence through existing work will be undertaking theoretical research. The researcher who takes this one step further and collects data to test their explanation will be undertaking empirical research. Although theoretical research has its merits, we would suggest that you should- if at all possible- support your findings empirically through the collection of primary data.
Basic and Applied Research
Applied research: Refers to scientific study and research that seeks to solve practical problems. It is used to find solutions to everyday problems cure illness and develop innovative technologies. Psychologists working in human factors or industrial/organizational fields often do this type of research.
Basic research: Refers to study and research on pure science that is meant to increase our scientific knowledge base. This type of research is often purely theoretical with the intent of increasing our understanding of certain phenomena or behavior, but does not seek to solve or treat these problems.
Difference between Basic and Applied Research
Both basic and applied research is important to the advancement of human knowledge, but they work in slightly different ways, and they have different end goals in sight. Basic or pure research is conducted solely for the purpose of gathering information and building on existing knowledge, as opposed to applied research, which is geared towards the resolution of a particular question.
Often, applied research builds on existing basic research. Basic research could be considered the foundation of knowledge which provides people with the basic information they need to pursue particular areas of research.
The lines between basic and applied research can blur. For example, a researcher playing around with batteries and methods of storing energy might accidentally stumble upon a revolutionary battery which could be utilized as a commercial product.
In basic research, general theories, ideas, and questions are explored and tested, from where the universe comes from to how animals communicate. Doing basic research ensures that applied researchers don't need to reinvent the wheel every time they start on a new project, because the groundwork has been done.
Evaluative and Action Research
Action research is a method for intentional learning from experience, originally formulated by social psychologist Kurt Lewin. Action research is a practical approach to professional inquiry in any social situation.
According to Reason and Bradbury 2001, Action research (AR) is an orientation to inquiry rather than a particular method. In its simplest form it attempts to combine understanding or development of theory, with action and change through a participative process, whilst remaining grounded in experience.
Carr and Kemmis (1986) describe action research as being about:
• the improvement of practice;
• the improvement of the understanding of practice;
• the improvement of the situation in which the practice takes place.
Types of action research
Grundy (1982) distinguishes three broad types of action research:
Technical action research
Practical action research
Emancipatory action research
Evaluative
Evaluative research seeks to assess or judge in some way, providing useful information about something other than might be gleaned in mere observation or investigation of relationships.
Nature of Evaluative Research
-It is usually used for decision-making
-The research questions are derived from a program, usually a service offered to a client group.
-The research provides a basis for making a judgment about the program.
-The research occurs in the environment of the program application, not in a laboratory and not in the respondent’s study
RESEARCH PROBLEM
A problem is formulated in the form of a question; it serves as the basis or origin from which a hypothesis is derived.
WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROBLEM?
A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same. Usually we say that a research problem does exist if the following conditions are met with:
(i) There must be an individual (or a group or an organization), let us call it ‘I,’ to whom the problem can be attributed. The individual or the organization, as the case may be, occupies an environment, say ‘N’, which is defined by values of the uncontrolled variables, Yj.
(ii) There must be at least two courses of action, say C1 and C2, to be pursued. A course of action is defined by one or more values of the controlled variables. For example, the number of items purchased at a specified time is said to be one course of action.
(iii) There must be at least two possible outcomes, say O1 and O2, of the course of action, of which one should be preferable to the other. In other words, this means that there must be at least one outcome that the researcher wants, i.e., an objective.
(iv) The courses of action available must provide some chance of obtaining the objective, but they cannot provide the same chance, otherwise the choice would not matter. Thus, if P (Oj | I, Cj, N) represents the probability that an outcome Oj will occur, if I select Cj in N, then PbO1|I,C1,NgPbO1|I,C2,Ng . In simple words, we can say that the choices must have unequal efficiencies for the desired outcomes.
Over and above these conditions, the individual or the organisation can be said to have the problem only if ‘I’ does not know what course of action is best, i.e., ‘I’, must be in doubt about the solution. Thus, an individual or a group of persons can be said to have a problem which can be technically described as a research problem, if they (individual or the group), having one or more desired outcomes, are confronted with two or more courses of action that have some but not equal efficiency for the desired objective(s) and are in doubt about which course of action is best.
We can, thus, state the components1 of a research problem as under:
(i) There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem.
(ii) There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one cannot have a problem.
(iii) There must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for obtaining the objective(s) one wishes to attain. This means that there must be at least two means available to a researcher for if he has no choice of means, he cannot have a problem.
(iv) There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the selection of alternatives. This means that research must answer the question concerning the relative efficiency of the possible alternatives.
(v) There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.
Thus, a research problem is one which requires a researcher to find out the best solution for the given problem, i.e., to find out by which course of action the objective can be attained optimally in the context of a given environment. There are several factors which may result in making the problem complicated. For instance, the environment may change affecting the efficiencies of the courses of action or the values of the outcomes; the number of alternative courses of action may be very large; persons not involved in making the decision may be affected by it and react to it favorably or unfavorably, and similar other factors. All such elements (or at least the important ones) may be thought of in context of a research problem.
SELECTING THE PROBLEM
The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected. The task is a difficult one, although it may not appear to be so. Help may be taken from a research guide in this connection.
Nevertheless, every researcher must find out his own salvation for research problems cannot be borrowed. A problem must spring from the researcher’s mind like a plant springing from its own seed. If our eyes need glasses, it is not the optician alone who decides about the number of the lens we require. We have to see ourselves and enable him to prescribe for us the right number by cooperating with him. Thus, a research guide can at the most only help a researcher choose a subject. However, the following points may be observed by a researcher in selecting a research problem or a subject for research:
(i) Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task to throw any new light in such a case.
(ii) Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher.
(iii) Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
(iv) The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related research material or sources of research are within one’s reach. Even then it is quite difficult to supply definitive ideas concerning how a researcher should obtain ideas for his research.
For this purpose, a researcher should contact an expert or a professor in the University who is already engaged in research. He may as well read articles published in current literature available on the subject and may think how the techniques and ideas discussed therein might be applied to the solution of other problems. He may discuss with others what he has in mind concerning a problem. In this way he should make all possible efforts in selecting a problem.
(v) The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a researcher, the costs involved, the time factor are few other criteria that must also be considered in selecting a problem. In other words, before the final selection of a problem is done, a researcher must ask himself the following questions:
(a) Whether he is well equipped in terms of his background to carry out the research?
(b) Whether the study falls within the budget he can afford?
(c) Whether the necessary cooperation can be obtained from those who must participate in research as subjects?
If the answers to all these questions are in the affirmative, one may become sure so far as the practicability of the study is concerned.
(vi) The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study. This may not be necessary when the problem requires the conduct of a research closely similar to one that has already been done. But when the field of inquiry is relatively new and does not have available a set of well developed techniques, a brief feasibility study must always be undertaken.
If the subject for research is selected properly by observing the above mentioned points, the research will not be a boring drudgery, rather it will be love’s labor. In fact, zest for work is a must. The subject or the problem selected must involve the researcher and must have an upper most place in his mind so that he may undertake all pains needed for the study.
NECESSITY OF DEFINING THE PROBLEM
Quite often we all hear that a problem clearly stated is a problem half solved. This statement signifies the need for defining a research problem. The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help to discriminate relevant data from the irrelevant ones. A proper definition of research problem will enable the researcher to be on the track whereas an ill-defined problem may create hurdles. Questions like: What data are to be collected? What characteristics of data are relevant and need to be studied? What relations are to be explored. What techniques are to be used for the purpose? And similar other questions crop up in the mind of the researcher who can well plan his strategy and find answers to all such questions only when the research problem has been well defined. Thus, defining a research problem properly is a prerequisite for any study and is a step of the highest importance. In fact, formulation of a problem is often more essential than its solution. It is only on careful detailing the research problem that we can work out the research design and can smoothly carry on all the consequential steps involved while doing research.
TECHNIQUE INVOLVED IN DEFINING A PROBLEM
Let us start with the question: What does one mean when he/she wants to define a research problem?
The answer may be that one wants to state the problem along with the bounds within which it is to be studied. In other words, defining a problem involves the task of laying down boundaries within which a researcher shall study the problem with a pre-determined objective in view.
How to define a research problem is undoubtedly a herculean task. However, it is a task that must be tackled intelligently to avoid the perplexity encountered in a research operation. The usual approach is that the researcher should himself pose a question (or in case someone else wants the researcher to carry on research, the concerned individual, organization or an authority should pose the question to the researcher) and set-up techniques and procedures for throwing light on the question concerned for formulating or defining the research problem. But such an approach generally does not produce definitive results because the question phrased in such a fashion is usually in broad general terms and as such may not be in a form suitable for testing.
Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a crucial part of a research study and must in no case be accomplished hurriedly. However, in practice this a frequently overlooked which causes a lot of problems later on. Hence, the research problem should be defined in a systematic manner, giving due weight age to all relating points. The technique for the purpose involves the undertaking of the following steps generally one after the other: (i) statement of the problem in a general way; (ii) understanding the nature of the problem; (iii) surveying the available literature (iv) developing the ideas through discussions; and (v) rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.
A brief description of all these points will be helpful.
(i) Statement of the problem in a general way: First of all the problem should be stated in a broad general way, keeping in view either some practical concern or some scientific or intellectual interest. For this purpose, the researcher must immerse himself thoroughly in the subject matter concerning which he wishes to pose a problem. In case of social research, it is considered advisable to do some field observation and as such the researcher may undertake some sort of preliminary survey or what is often called pilot survey. Then the researcher can himself state the problem or he can seek the guidance of the guide or the subject expert in accomplishing this task. Often, the guide puts forth the problem in general terms, and it is then up to the researcher to narrow it down and phrase the problem in operational terms. In case there is some directive from an organizational authority, the problem then can be stated accordingly. The problem stated in a broad general way may contain various ambiguities which must be resolved by cool thinking and rethinking over the problem. At the same time the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered and the same should be kept in view while stating the problem.
(ii) Understanding the nature of the problem: The next step in defining the problem is to understand its origin and nature clearly. The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with those who first raised it in order to find out how the problem originally came about and with what objectives in view. If the researcher has stated the problem himself, he should consider once again all those points that induced him to make a general statement concerning the problem. For a better understanding of the nature of the problem involved, he can enter into discussion with those who have a good knowledge of the problem concerned or similar other problems. The researcher should also keep in view the environment within which the problem is to be studied and understood.
(iii) Surveying the available literature: All available literature concerning the problem at hand must necessarily be surveyed and examined before a definition of the research problem is given.
This means that the researcher must be well-conversant with relevant theories in the field, reports and records as also all other relevant literature. He must devote sufficient time in reviewing of research already undertaken on related problems. This is done to find out what data and other materials, if any, are available for operational purposes. “Knowing what data are available often serves to narrow the problem itself as well as the technique that might be used.”2. This would also help a researcher to know if there are certain gaps in the theories, or whether the existing theories applicable to the problem under study are inconsistent with each other, or whether the findings of the different studies do not follow a pattern consistent with the theoretical expectations and so on. All this will enable a researcher to take new strides in the field for furtherance of knowledge i.e., he can move up starting from the existing premise. Studies on related problems are useful for indicating the type of difficulties that may be encountered in the present study as also the possible analytical shortcomings. At times such studies may also suggest useful and even new lines of approach to the present problem.
(iv) Developing the ideas through discussions: Discussion concerning a problem often produces useful information. Various new ideas can be developed through such an exercise. Hence, a researcher must discuss his problem with his colleagues and others who have enough experience in the same area or in working on similar problems. This is quite often known as an experience survey. People with rich experience are in a position to enlighten the researcher on different aspects of his proposed and their advice and comments are usually invaluable to the researcher. They help him sharpen his focus of attention on specific aspects within the field. Discussions with such persons should not only be confined to the formulation of the specific problem at hand, but should also be concerned with the general approach to the given problem, techniques that might be used, possible solutions, etc.
(v) Rephrasing the research problem: Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the research problem into a working proposition. Once the nature of the problem has been clearly understood, the environment (within which the problem has got to be studied) has been defined, discussions over the problem have taken place and the available literature has been surveyed and examined, rephrasing the problem into analytical or operational terms is not a difficult task. Through rephrasing, the researcher puts the research problem in as specific terms as possible so that it may become operationally viable and may help in the development of working hypotheses.*
In addition to what has been stated above, the following points must also be observed while defining a research problem:
(a) Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used in the statement of the problem, should be clearly defined.
(b) Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research problem should be clearly stated.
(c) A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation (i.e., the criteria for the selection of the problem) should be provided.
(d) The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available must also be considered by the researcher in defining the problem.
(e) The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be studied must be mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem.
WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROBLEM?
A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same. Usually we say that a research problem does exist if the following conditions are met with:
(i) There must be an individual (or a group or an organization), let us call it ‘I,’ to whom the problem can be attributed. The individual or the organization, as the case may be, occupies an environment, say ‘N’, which is defined by values of the uncontrolled variables, Yj.
(ii) There must be at least two courses of action, say C1 and C2, to be pursued. A course of action is defined by one or more values of the controlled variables. For example, the number of items purchased at a specified time is said to be one course of action.
(iii) There must be at least two possible outcomes, say O1 and O2, of the course of action, of which one should be preferable to the other. In other words, this means that there must be at least one outcome that the researcher wants, i.e., an objective.
(iv) The courses of action available must provide some chance of obtaining the objective, but they cannot provide the same chance, otherwise the choice would not matter. Thus, if P (Oj | I, Cj, N) represents the probability that an outcome Oj will occur, if I select Cj in N, then PbO1|I,C1,NgPbO1|I,C2,Ng . In simple words, we can say that the choices must have unequal efficiencies for the desired outcomes.
Over and above these conditions, the individual or the organisation can be said to have the problem only if ‘I’ does not know what course of action is best, i.e., ‘I’, must be in doubt about the solution. Thus, an individual or a group of persons can be said to have a problem which can be technically described as a research problem, if they (individual or the group), having one or more desired outcomes, are confronted with two or more courses of action that have some but not equal efficiency for the desired objective(s) and are in doubt about which course of action is best.
We can, thus, state the components1 of a research problem as under:
(i) There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem.
(ii) There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one cannot have a problem.
(iii) There must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for obtaining the objective(s) one wishes to attain. This means that there must be at least two means available to a researcher for if he has no choice of means, he cannot have a problem.
(iv) There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the selection of alternatives. This means that research must answer the question concerning the relative efficiency of the possible alternatives.
(v) There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.
Thus, a research problem is one which requires a researcher to find out the best solution for the given problem, i.e., to find out by which course of action the objective can be attained optimally in the context of a given environment. There are several factors which may result in making the problem complicated. For instance, the environment may change affecting the efficiencies of the courses of action or the values of the outcomes; the number of alternative courses of action may be very large; persons not involved in making the decision may be affected by it and react to it favorably or unfavorably, and similar other factors. All such elements (or at least the important ones) may be thought of in context of a research problem.
SELECTING THE PROBLEM
The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected. The task is a difficult one, although it may not appear to be so. Help may be taken from a research guide in this connection.
Nevertheless, every researcher must find out his own salvation for research problems cannot be borrowed. A problem must spring from the researcher’s mind like a plant springing from its own seed. If our eyes need glasses, it is not the optician alone who decides about the number of the lens we require. We have to see ourselves and enable him to prescribe for us the right number by cooperating with him. Thus, a research guide can at the most only help a researcher choose a subject. However, the following points may be observed by a researcher in selecting a research problem or a subject for research:
(i) Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task to throw any new light in such a case.
(ii) Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher.
(iii) Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
(iv) The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related research material or sources of research are within one’s reach. Even then it is quite difficult to supply definitive ideas concerning how a researcher should obtain ideas for his research.
For this purpose, a researcher should contact an expert or a professor in the University who is already engaged in research. He may as well read articles published in current literature available on the subject and may think how the techniques and ideas discussed therein might be applied to the solution of other problems. He may discuss with others what he has in mind concerning a problem. In this way he should make all possible efforts in selecting a problem.
(v) The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a researcher, the costs involved, the time factor are few other criteria that must also be considered in selecting a problem. In other words, before the final selection of a problem is done, a researcher must ask himself the following questions:
(a) Whether he is well equipped in terms of his background to carry out the research?
(b) Whether the study falls within the budget he can afford?
(c) Whether the necessary cooperation can be obtained from those who must participate in research as subjects?
If the answers to all these questions are in the affirmative, one may become sure so far as the practicability of the study is concerned.
(vi) The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study. This may not be necessary when the problem requires the conduct of a research closely similar to one that has already been done. But when the field of inquiry is relatively new and does not have available a set of well developed techniques, a brief feasibility study must always be undertaken.
If the subject for research is selected properly by observing the above mentioned points, the research will not be a boring drudgery, rather it will be love’s labor. In fact, zest for work is a must. The subject or the problem selected must involve the researcher and must have an upper most place in his mind so that he may undertake all pains needed for the study.
NECESSITY OF DEFINING THE PROBLEM
Quite often we all hear that a problem clearly stated is a problem half solved. This statement signifies the need for defining a research problem. The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help to discriminate relevant data from the irrelevant ones. A proper definition of research problem will enable the researcher to be on the track whereas an ill-defined problem may create hurdles. Questions like: What data are to be collected? What characteristics of data are relevant and need to be studied? What relations are to be explored. What techniques are to be used for the purpose? And similar other questions crop up in the mind of the researcher who can well plan his strategy and find answers to all such questions only when the research problem has been well defined. Thus, defining a research problem properly is a prerequisite for any study and is a step of the highest importance. In fact, formulation of a problem is often more essential than its solution. It is only on careful detailing the research problem that we can work out the research design and can smoothly carry on all the consequential steps involved while doing research.
TECHNIQUE INVOLVED IN DEFINING A PROBLEM
Let us start with the question: What does one mean when he/she wants to define a research problem?
The answer may be that one wants to state the problem along with the bounds within which it is to be studied. In other words, defining a problem involves the task of laying down boundaries within which a researcher shall study the problem with a pre-determined objective in view.
How to define a research problem is undoubtedly a herculean task. However, it is a task that must be tackled intelligently to avoid the perplexity encountered in a research operation. The usual approach is that the researcher should himself pose a question (or in case someone else wants the researcher to carry on research, the concerned individual, organization or an authority should pose the question to the researcher) and set-up techniques and procedures for throwing light on the question concerned for formulating or defining the research problem. But such an approach generally does not produce definitive results because the question phrased in such a fashion is usually in broad general terms and as such may not be in a form suitable for testing.
Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a crucial part of a research study and must in no case be accomplished hurriedly. However, in practice this a frequently overlooked which causes a lot of problems later on. Hence, the research problem should be defined in a systematic manner, giving due weight age to all relating points. The technique for the purpose involves the undertaking of the following steps generally one after the other: (i) statement of the problem in a general way; (ii) understanding the nature of the problem; (iii) surveying the available literature (iv) developing the ideas through discussions; and (v) rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.
A brief description of all these points will be helpful.
(i) Statement of the problem in a general way: First of all the problem should be stated in a broad general way, keeping in view either some practical concern or some scientific or intellectual interest. For this purpose, the researcher must immerse himself thoroughly in the subject matter concerning which he wishes to pose a problem. In case of social research, it is considered advisable to do some field observation and as such the researcher may undertake some sort of preliminary survey or what is often called pilot survey. Then the researcher can himself state the problem or he can seek the guidance of the guide or the subject expert in accomplishing this task. Often, the guide puts forth the problem in general terms, and it is then up to the researcher to narrow it down and phrase the problem in operational terms. In case there is some directive from an organizational authority, the problem then can be stated accordingly. The problem stated in a broad general way may contain various ambiguities which must be resolved by cool thinking and rethinking over the problem. At the same time the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered and the same should be kept in view while stating the problem.
(ii) Understanding the nature of the problem: The next step in defining the problem is to understand its origin and nature clearly. The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with those who first raised it in order to find out how the problem originally came about and with what objectives in view. If the researcher has stated the problem himself, he should consider once again all those points that induced him to make a general statement concerning the problem. For a better understanding of the nature of the problem involved, he can enter into discussion with those who have a good knowledge of the problem concerned or similar other problems. The researcher should also keep in view the environment within which the problem is to be studied and understood.
(iii) Surveying the available literature: All available literature concerning the problem at hand must necessarily be surveyed and examined before a definition of the research problem is given.
This means that the researcher must be well-conversant with relevant theories in the field, reports and records as also all other relevant literature. He must devote sufficient time in reviewing of research already undertaken on related problems. This is done to find out what data and other materials, if any, are available for operational purposes. “Knowing what data are available often serves to narrow the problem itself as well as the technique that might be used.”2. This would also help a researcher to know if there are certain gaps in the theories, or whether the existing theories applicable to the problem under study are inconsistent with each other, or whether the findings of the different studies do not follow a pattern consistent with the theoretical expectations and so on. All this will enable a researcher to take new strides in the field for furtherance of knowledge i.e., he can move up starting from the existing premise. Studies on related problems are useful for indicating the type of difficulties that may be encountered in the present study as also the possible analytical shortcomings. At times such studies may also suggest useful and even new lines of approach to the present problem.
(iv) Developing the ideas through discussions: Discussion concerning a problem often produces useful information. Various new ideas can be developed through such an exercise. Hence, a researcher must discuss his problem with his colleagues and others who have enough experience in the same area or in working on similar problems. This is quite often known as an experience survey. People with rich experience are in a position to enlighten the researcher on different aspects of his proposed and their advice and comments are usually invaluable to the researcher. They help him sharpen his focus of attention on specific aspects within the field. Discussions with such persons should not only be confined to the formulation of the specific problem at hand, but should also be concerned with the general approach to the given problem, techniques that might be used, possible solutions, etc.
(v) Rephrasing the research problem: Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the research problem into a working proposition. Once the nature of the problem has been clearly understood, the environment (within which the problem has got to be studied) has been defined, discussions over the problem have taken place and the available literature has been surveyed and examined, rephrasing the problem into analytical or operational terms is not a difficult task. Through rephrasing, the researcher puts the research problem in as specific terms as possible so that it may become operationally viable and may help in the development of working hypotheses.*
In addition to what has been stated above, the following points must also be observed while defining a research problem:
(a) Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used in the statement of the problem, should be clearly defined.
(b) Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research problem should be clearly stated.
(c) A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation (i.e., the criteria for the selection of the problem) should be provided.
(d) The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available must also be considered by the researcher in defining the problem.
(e) The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be studied must be mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem.
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