WHAT IS A HYPOTHESIS?
A hypothesis is a tentative statement that proposes a possible explanation to some phenomenon or event. A useful hypothesis is a testable statement which may include a prediction. A hypothesis should not be confused with a theory. Theories are general explanations based on a large amount of data.
According to Kendra Cherry 2009, a hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in our study.
According to McGuigan, Hypothesis is testable statement of a potential relationship between two or more variables.
Characteristics of hypothesis:
Hypothesis must possess the following characteristics:
(i) Hypothesis should be clear and precise. If the hypothesis is not clear and precise, the inferences drawn on its basis cannot be taken as reliable.
(ii) Hypothesis should be capable of being tested.
(iii) Hypothesis should state relationship between variables, if it happens to be a relational hypothesis.
(iv) Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific. A researcher must remember that narrower hypotheses are generally more testable and he should develop such hypotheses.
(v) Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms so that the same is easily understandable by all concerned.
(vi) Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts i.e., it must be consistent with a substantial body of established facts.
(vii) Hypothesis should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time.
(viii) Hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation.
Sources of Hypothesis:
There are only four sources.
1. Theory
A theory defined as "A group of logically organized laws"(Marx)
Theory is of two type functions. According to Marx
1. Tool Function Theory
2. Goal Function Theory
The tool function is evidenced by the proportions that theories guide research. The goal function is that laws are ordered and integrated by theories; Theories summarizes and integrate existing knowledge.
2. Everyday Life
As we proceed through the daily routine dictated by our current point in life, we come into contact with many phenomena that pose questions in need of solution. Parents want to know how to handle their children; students want to know how to learn material faster. When we interact with others or see others react, we note many individual differences.
3. Practical Issues
Many experimental problems arise from practical issues that require solutions. Private industry faces problems such as employee moral, absenteeism, turnover, selection and placement to name only a few. Counseling and clinical psychology is the need of a great deal of research to identify more efficient modes of dealing with mental disturbances.
4. Past Research
previously conducted research/experiments are an excellent source of research ideas. Each well-designed study does provide additional knowledge, phenomena are multi-determined. In any experiment only a limited number of variables can be studied. Investigation of certain variables may lead to hypothesis about the effects of other variables.
Formulate a Hypothesis;
When research is conducted hypothesis formulation is one of the most preliminary steps.
A hypothesis is a concept that has yet to be verified, but if proved true would explain certain facts about a specific phenomena.
A hypothesis is formulated after the problem has been stated and the literature study has been concluded.
It is formulated when the researcher is totally aware of the theoretical and empirical background to the problem.
Hypothesis serves a valuable function.
Always hypothesis derived from knowledge obtained from the theory, everyday life experiences, practical issues and past research. Such prior knowledge serves as the basis for the hypothesis. If the experiment confirms the hypothesis then in addition to providing an answer to the question asked, it gives to the additional support to the literature that suggested the hypothesis.
But what if the hypothesis is not confirmed by the experiment then either the hypothesis false or some error exists in the conception of the hypothesis.
Failure to support a hypothesis may indicate that something is wrong and it’s up to the experimenter to discover what it is.
Once the experimenter uncovers what he thinks is wrong, a new hypothesis is made to be tested experimentally.
Even if the hypothesis is false, knowledge has been advanced we must formulate another hypothesis to test in order to reach a solution to the problem.
THE PURPOSE OF HYPOTHESIS
• It offers explanations for the relationships between those variables that can be empirically tested.
• It furnishes proof that the researcher has sufficient background knowledge to enable him/her to make suggestions in order to extend existing knowledge.
• It gives direction to an investigation.
• It structures the next phase in the investigation and therefore furnishes continuity to the examination of the problem.
রবিবার, ২ ডিসেম্বর, ২০১২
Steps in delineating of the problem
The problem should be in a systematic manner, considering all the related points. As such, we should undertake in sequence the following steps:
Selection and formulation of research problem
The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected.
Assigning the problem; understanding the nature of problem and formulate the research problem.
Necessity of assigning the problem; Stating the problem in a general way and setup specific aims
Source for research problem; there are huge of fields as source of research problem such as reading, academic experience, daily working experience, exposure to filed situation, consultation, intuition and past research etc.
Criteria for selection; There are two criteria for selection such as- Internal and external. Internal criteria involve such researcher’s interest, competence, finance, time etc. On the other hand, external criteria have to do with such matters as researchability, importance and urgency of research, novelty, feasibility etc for the field.
• Surveying the available literature
• Developing the idea through discussions
• Rephrasing the research problem into a workable proposition
Steps of defining research problem;
A problem clearly stated is a problem half solved. This statement signifies the need for defining a research problem. A proper definition of research problem will enable the researcher to be on the track whereas an ill-defined problem may create hurdles.
Steps of generating research variable;
After define the research problem clearly, researcher must generating two types of variable such independent variable and dependent variable.
Steps of scientifically define research problem; discuss the research problem with scientific way.
Steps of Generating Hypothesis; the step in conducting research is to come up with one or more hypotheses that will help answer the question. Hypothesis is a tentative prediction or explanation of the relationship between 2 or more variables
Discuss the purpose of Research; Researchers must define him/her purpose of research briefly.
Formulate a research design; present the research design by theoretical, graphical. Graphical designs involve action, adaptive and operational.
Discuss the proposal of Research; discuss briefly the research subjects, scale and other apparatus etc.
Discuss the source of primary and secondary data; Explain how the information taken was analyzed.
Coding and analyzing data; the researcher will be analyzed data according to the plan finally.
Rectify the collected data; rectify the collected data with validity and reliability.
Use the statistical methods; sample and sampling, calculation with statistical theory etc,
Categorize and tabulate the data;
Define the data clearly; the report should explain the different variables in the experiment and what role they played.
Presenting the result; Once analyzed the data from a survey, the next step is to share the results. So present the research results theoretically and graphically.
Writing the research report; Research is often shared by writing up the results in an article format and publishing the findings in a professional psychology journal.
Reference (if required)
Selection and formulation of research problem
The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected.
Assigning the problem; understanding the nature of problem and formulate the research problem.
Necessity of assigning the problem; Stating the problem in a general way and setup specific aims
Source for research problem; there are huge of fields as source of research problem such as reading, academic experience, daily working experience, exposure to filed situation, consultation, intuition and past research etc.
Criteria for selection; There are two criteria for selection such as- Internal and external. Internal criteria involve such researcher’s interest, competence, finance, time etc. On the other hand, external criteria have to do with such matters as researchability, importance and urgency of research, novelty, feasibility etc for the field.
• Surveying the available literature
• Developing the idea through discussions
• Rephrasing the research problem into a workable proposition
Steps of defining research problem;
A problem clearly stated is a problem half solved. This statement signifies the need for defining a research problem. A proper definition of research problem will enable the researcher to be on the track whereas an ill-defined problem may create hurdles.
Steps of generating research variable;
After define the research problem clearly, researcher must generating two types of variable such independent variable and dependent variable.
Steps of scientifically define research problem; discuss the research problem with scientific way.
Steps of Generating Hypothesis; the step in conducting research is to come up with one or more hypotheses that will help answer the question. Hypothesis is a tentative prediction or explanation of the relationship between 2 or more variables
Discuss the purpose of Research; Researchers must define him/her purpose of research briefly.
Formulate a research design; present the research design by theoretical, graphical. Graphical designs involve action, adaptive and operational.
Discuss the proposal of Research; discuss briefly the research subjects, scale and other apparatus etc.
Discuss the source of primary and secondary data; Explain how the information taken was analyzed.
Coding and analyzing data; the researcher will be analyzed data according to the plan finally.
Rectify the collected data; rectify the collected data with validity and reliability.
Use the statistical methods; sample and sampling, calculation with statistical theory etc,
Categorize and tabulate the data;
Define the data clearly; the report should explain the different variables in the experiment and what role they played.
Presenting the result; Once analyzed the data from a survey, the next step is to share the results. So present the research results theoretically and graphically.
Writing the research report; Research is often shared by writing up the results in an article format and publishing the findings in a professional psychology journal.
Reference (if required)
Survey Method
In survey method research, participants answer questions administered through interviews or questionnaires. After participants answer the questions, researchers describe the responses given. In order for the survey to be both reliable and valid it is important that the questions are constructed properly. Questions should be written so they are clear and easy to comprehend.
Another consideration when designing questions is whether to include open-ended, closed-ended, partially open-ended, or rating-scale questions (for a detailed discussion refer to Jackson, 2009). Advantages and disadvantages can be found with each type:
Open-ended questions allow for a greater variety of responses from participants but are difficult to analyze statistically because the data must be coded or reduced in some manner. Closed-ended questions are easy to analyze statistically, but they seriously limit the responses that participants can give. Many researchers prefer to use a Likert-type scale because it’s very easy to analyze statistically. (Jackson, 2009, p. 89)
In addition to the methods listed above some individuals also include qualitative (as a distinct method) and archival methods when discussing descriptive research methods.
It is important to emphasize that descriptive research methods can only describe a set of observations or the data collected. It cannot draw conclusions from that data about which way the relationship goes — Does A cause B, or does B cause A?
Unfortunately, in many studies published today, researchers forget this fundamental limitation of their research and suggest their data can actually demonstrate or “suggest” causal relationships. Nothing could be further from the truth.
Another consideration when designing questions is whether to include open-ended, closed-ended, partially open-ended, or rating-scale questions (for a detailed discussion refer to Jackson, 2009). Advantages and disadvantages can be found with each type:
Open-ended questions allow for a greater variety of responses from participants but are difficult to analyze statistically because the data must be coded or reduced in some manner. Closed-ended questions are easy to analyze statistically, but they seriously limit the responses that participants can give. Many researchers prefer to use a Likert-type scale because it’s very easy to analyze statistically. (Jackson, 2009, p. 89)
In addition to the methods listed above some individuals also include qualitative (as a distinct method) and archival methods when discussing descriptive research methods.
It is important to emphasize that descriptive research methods can only describe a set of observations or the data collected. It cannot draw conclusions from that data about which way the relationship goes — Does A cause B, or does B cause A?
Unfortunately, in many studies published today, researchers forget this fundamental limitation of their research and suggest their data can actually demonstrate or “suggest” causal relationships. Nothing could be further from the truth.
QUESTIONNAIRES METHOD
This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries. It is being adopted by private individuals, research workers, private and public organizations and even by governments.
In this method a questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to the persons concerned with a request to answer the questions and return the questionnaire. A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set of forms.
The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and understand the questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire itself. The respondents have to answer the questions on their own.
The method of collecting data by mailing the questionnaires to respondents is most extensively employed in various economic and business surveys. The merits claimed on behalf of this method are as follows:
1. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread geographically.
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own words.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.
5 Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and reliable.
The main demerits of this system can also be listed here:
1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no-response is often indeterminate.
2. It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.
3. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
4. There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach once questionnaires have been dispatched.
5. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies altogether to certain questions; interpretation of omissions is difficult.
6. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.
7. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.
In this method a questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to the persons concerned with a request to answer the questions and return the questionnaire. A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set of forms.
The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and understand the questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire itself. The respondents have to answer the questions on their own.
The method of collecting data by mailing the questionnaires to respondents is most extensively employed in various economic and business surveys. The merits claimed on behalf of this method are as follows:
1. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread geographically.
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own words.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.
5 Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and reliable.
The main demerits of this system can also be listed here:
1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no-response is often indeterminate.
2. It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.
3. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
4. There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach once questionnaires have been dispatched.
5. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies altogether to certain questions; interpretation of omissions is difficult.
6. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.
7. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.
Projective techniques
Projective Techniques are indirect and unstructured methods of investigation which have been developed by the psychologists and use projection of respondents for inferring about underline motives, urges or intentions which cannot be secure through direct questioning as the respondent either resists to reveal them or is unable to figure out himself. These techniques are useful in giving respondents opportunities to express their attitudes without personal embarrassment. These techniques helps the respondents to project his own attitude and feelings unconsciously on the subject under study. Thus Projective Techniques play a important role in motivational researches or in attitude surveys.
The important projective techniques are-
(i) Word association tests: These tests are used to extract information regarding such words which have maximum association. In this sort of test the respondent is asked to mention the first word that comes to mind, ostensibly without thinking, as the interviewer reads out each word from a list.
(ii) Sentence completion tests: These tests happen to be an extension of the technique of word association tests. Under this, informant may be asked to complete a to find association of Khadi clothes with certain personality characteristics. Several sentences of this type might be put to the informant on the same subject.
(iii) Construction Test: This is more or less like completion test. They can give you a picture and you are asked to write a story about it. The initial structure is limited and not detailed like the completion test. For eg: 2 cartoons are given and a dialogue is to written.
(vi) Expression Techniques: In this the people are asked to express the feeling or attitude of other people.
Disadvantages of Projective Techniques
1. Highly trained interviewers and skilled interpreters are needed.
2. Interpreters bias can be there.
3. It is a costly method.
4. The respondent selected may not be representative of the entire population.
The important projective techniques are-
(i) Word association tests: These tests are used to extract information regarding such words which have maximum association. In this sort of test the respondent is asked to mention the first word that comes to mind, ostensibly without thinking, as the interviewer reads out each word from a list.
(ii) Sentence completion tests: These tests happen to be an extension of the technique of word association tests. Under this, informant may be asked to complete a to find association of Khadi clothes with certain personality characteristics. Several sentences of this type might be put to the informant on the same subject.
(iii) Construction Test: This is more or less like completion test. They can give you a picture and you are asked to write a story about it. The initial structure is limited and not detailed like the completion test. For eg: 2 cartoons are given and a dialogue is to written.
(vi) Expression Techniques: In this the people are asked to express the feeling or attitude of other people.
Disadvantages of Projective Techniques
1. Highly trained interviewers and skilled interpreters are needed.
2. Interpreters bias can be there.
3. It is a costly method.
4. The respondent selected may not be representative of the entire population.
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